We previously saw how to parse simple context-free languages using combinatory parsers. In another post, I had also detailed how one can do a simple PEG and even a context-free parser. However, these parsers are unsatisfying in some sense. They do not handle left recursion correctly.

The essential idea in those is to make use of the Python stack for recursive descent style parsing. Using the language stack however comes with the restriction that one is restricted to a depth first strategy. One cannot suspend an exploration when one feels like it, and resume it later. How much does it take to implement left recursion? My post on CFG parses hints at a way. What we need to do is to handle the stack on our own, and do a breadth first search search of the possible parses.

That is, we consider multiple parses at once (as multiple threads), and prioritize the most optimistic parsing scenarios so that they get examined first.

We use the following heuristic: The threads that are farthest along in parsing (in terms of number of characters parsed) gets the highest priority. Next, the threads where the first item is the shallowest gets the highest priority.

Here is a simple implementation. It takes the input chars (lst), the starting key and the grammar. Then, it extracts the most promising parse thread, explores its first element, which may produce a new set of threads that represent alternative parse directions.

def match(lst, key, grammar):
queue = [((len(lst), 0), [(0, key)])]
while queue:
current = H.heappop(queue)
rlst = explore(current, lst)
for item in rlst:
(lst_rem, _depth), rule = item
lst_idx = len(lst) - lst_rem
if lst_idx == len(lst):
if not rule:
yield 'parsed: ' + str(lst_idx)
else:
# (check for epsilons)
H.heappush(queue, item)
else:
if not rule: # incomplete parse
continue
else:
H.heappush(queue, item)


The explore() method is fairly simple. It checks if the given element is a terminal or a nonterminal. If it is a terminal, it is checked for a match, and if matched, the current parsing point is updated, and returned. If not a match, the current thread is discarded.

If the gievn element is a nonterminal, then the parsing can proceed in any of the possible expansions of the nonterminal. So, the parsing thread is split into as many new threads, and the nontermainl is replaced with its particular expansion in each of the thread, and the new threads are returned.

def explore(current, lst):
(lst_rem, depth), rule = current
lst_idx = len(lst) - lst_rem
depth, key = rule[0]

if key not in grammar:
if key != lst[lst_idx]:
return []
else:
return [((lst_rem - len(key), math.inf), rule[1:])]
else:
expansions = grammar[key]
ret = []
for expansion in expansions:
new_rule = [(depth + 1, e) for e in expansion] + rule[1:]
ret.append(((lst_rem, depth + 1), new_rule))
return ret


The driver would be

def main(arg):
for x in match(list(arg), '<start>', grammar):
print(x)

import sys
main(sys.argv[1])


While this can certainly handle left recursion, there is a new problem. The issue is that in the case of left recursion, and an incomplete prefix, the threads simply multiply, with out any means of actually parsing the input.

That is, given the usual grammar:

grammar = {
"<start>": [["<E>"]],
"<E>": [
["<E>", "+", "<E>"],
["<E>", "-", "<E>"],
["(", "<E>", ")"],
["<digits>"],
],
"<digits>": [["<digits>", "<digit>"], ["<digit>"]],
"<digit>": [[str(i)] for i in string.digits]
}


and the input 1+, the <E> will keep getting expanded again and again generating new threads. So the parser will never terminate.

So, what we need is a way to discard invalid potential parses immediately. In our case, we can see that if you have reached the end of 1+ where there are no more characters to parse, we no longer can accept an expansion that has even a single terminal symbol that is non empty. We can make this restriction into code as below:

def get_rule_minlength(grammar, rule, seen):
return sum([get_key_minlength(grammar, k, seen) for k in rule])

def get_key_minlength(grammar, key, seen):
if key not in grammar: return len(key)
if key in seen: return math.inf
return min([get_rule_minlength(grammar, r, seen | {key}) for r in grammar[key]])

cost = {}
for k in grammar:
cost[k] = get_key_minlength(grammar, k, set())


That is, we find the minimum expansion length of each key and store it beforehand. Next, we update our explore so that if the minimum expansion length in any of the potential threads is larger than the characters remaining, that thread is not started.

def explore(current, lst):
(lst_rem, depth), rule = current
lst_idx = len(lst) - lst_rem
depth, key = rule[0]

if key not in grammar:
if key != lst[lst_idx]:
return []
else:
return [((lst_rem - len(key), math.inf), rule[1:])]
else:
expansions = grammar[key]
ret = []
for expansion in expansions:
new_rule = [(depth + 1, e) for e in expansion] + rule[1:]
if sum([cost.get(r, len(r)) for d,r in new_rule]) > lst_rem: continue # <-- changed
ret.append(((lst_rem, depth + 1), new_rule))
return ret


With this, we are now ready to parse any context-free language. Using the driver above:

$python3 cfgparser.py '1+1+'$ python3  cfgparser.py '1+1+1'
parsed: 5
parsed: 5


As you can see, we can successfully use left recursive grammars. Note that this is still a recognizer. Turning it into a parser is not very difficult, and may be handled in a future post.

### Complete code:

import heapq as H
import math
import string
grammar = {
"<start>": [["<E>"]],
"<E>": [
["<E>", "+", "<E>"],
["<E>", "-", "<E>"],
["(", "<E>", ")"],
["<digits>"],
],
"<digits>": [["<digits>", "<digit>"], ["<digit>"]],
"<digit>": [[str(i)] for i in string.digits]
}

def get_rule_minlength(grammar, rule, seen):
return sum([get_key_minlength(grammar, k, seen) for k in rule])

def get_key_minlength(grammar, key, seen):
if key not in grammar: return len(key)
if key in seen: return math.inf
return min([get_rule_minlength(grammar, r, seen | {key}) for r in grammar[key]])

cost = {}
for k in grammar:
cost[k] = get_key_minlength(grammar, k, set())

def explore(current, lst):
(lst_rem, depth), rule = current
lst_idx = len(lst) - lst_rem
depth, key = rule[0]

if key not in grammar:
if key != lst[lst_idx]:
return []
else:
return [((lst_rem - len(key), math.inf), rule[1:])]
else:
expansions = grammar[key]
ret = []
for expansion in expansions:
new_rule = [(depth + 1, e) for e in expansion] + rule[1:]
if sum([cost.get(r, len(r)) for d,r in new_rule]) > lst_rem: continue
ret.append(((lst_rem, depth + 1), new_rule))
return ret

def match(lst, key, grammar):
queue = [((len(lst), 0), [(0, key)])]
while queue:
current = H.heappop(queue)
rlst = explore(current, lst)
for item in rlst:
(lst_rem, _depth), rule = item
lst_idx = len(lst) - lst_rem
if lst_idx == len(lst):
if not rule:
yield 'parsed: ' + str(lst_idx)
else:
# (check for epsilons)
H.heappush(queue, item)
else:
if not rule: # incomplete parse
continue
else:
H.heappush(queue, item)

def main(arg):
for x in match(list(arg), '<start>', grammar):
print(x)

import sys
main(sys.argv[1])


Note: I implemented it to scratch an itch, without first checking the literature about similar parsing techniques. However, now that I have implemented it, this technique seems similar to GLL). While my implmentation is inefficient, a few avenues of optimization such as the standard memoization (packrat) techniques, and GSS (fairly easy to implement in that it is about how to maintain the rule structure as a tree with common prefix) can help the situation.